四、有关球队迁移问题的立法建议
在美国的体育联盟及其业主们看来,如果再发生针对球队迁移规则的反垄断诉讼,他们十有八九会输掉官司。而且,联盟的业主们也没有精力应付旷日持久的官司。他们认为,解决这一问题最好的方法是国会通过有关立法。自1985年小马队从巴尔的摩迁到印第安纳波利斯之后,国会就不断收到各种有关职业球队迁移的立法议案。国会审议了四个法案:《职业足球稳定法案》(the Professional Football Stabilization Act),《职业运动队迁移法案》(the Professional Sports Franchise Relocation Act),《体育社团保护与稳定法》(the Sports Community Protection and Stability Act)和《职业运动队社团保护法案》(the Professional Sports Team Community Protection Act)。而1995年袭击者队和公羊队迁移之后,又有两个立法建议被提出,即《球迷权利法案》(the Fans Rights Act)和《球迷自由与社区保护法案》(Fan Freedom and Community Protection Act)。这些不同的立法建议案的共同目的是通过国家来保护体育迷和社区的利益。这些法案里包含了一些相同的球队迁移条件,比如:某些关于迁移的适当通知必须得到公开;如果某些迁移条件未能得到满足,那么NFL可以否决迁移申请。还有些立法建议甚至支持给予反垄断豁免。下面我们对这些立法建议中比较重要的几个分别予以简单介绍。
(一)《球迷权利法案》
俄亥俄州的参议员约翰.格伦(John Glenn)提出了《球迷权利法案》(the Fans Rights Act)。该法案要求任何准备迁移的职业球队必须提前180天通知所在的城市;该法案还要求给予职业体育联盟有限的反垄断法豁免,以允许它们实施其球队迁移规则,但同时要求职业体育联盟的决定或标准必须建立在以下因素之上:球迷忠诚度、社区支持以及是否有合法的出价者购买球队并将球队保留在原城市,禁止向联盟及其成员支付迁移费。据称,该法案支持地方政府有权拥有一支职业球队,而这在传统上却是为职业体育联盟所一贯反对的。
(二)《球迷自由与球队保护法案》
在俄亥俄州的立法委员马丁.霍克(Martin Hoke)提交的《球迷自由与球队保护法案》(Fan Freedom and Franchise Protection Act)中,他建议在球队迁移问题上给予职业体育联盟以有限的反垄断法豁免;但是如果计划迁移的球队在原城市已呆了超过十年以上,那么它将不能保留其球队的名称、颜色和标识,上述权利均归属于原城市;并且,如果能找到一个有能力、经济基础良好的业主的话,联盟应在5年内在被“放弃”的城市安置一支新的扩张球队。
(三)《球迷自由与社区保护法案》
在这些立法建议中,最为激进的是1995年的《球迷自由与社区保护法案》(Fan Freedom and Community Protection Act)。该法案明确表示,反垄断法不适用于那些在职业体育联盟成员间达成的、旨在授权职业体育联盟拒绝球队提出的迁移申请的协议。[89]此外,该法案还要求迁移的球队必须向联盟上交其已注册为商标的队名与颜色,由该球队“放弃”的城市专属使用。上述商标是属于联盟的财产,直到商标保护期限到期或者城市通知联盟其将不再使用这些商标。法案还计划给予被“放弃”的城市使用旧的球队名称的权利,如果该城市能在三年内为一支新球队找到合适的投资者的话。
(四)《职业运动队迁移法案》
1998年,来自马萨诸塞州的众议员马丁.米汉(Martin Meehan)又提出了《职业运动队迁移法案》(Professional Sports Franchise Relocation Act)。该法案和以前的立法建议一样,要求为职业体育联盟创设反垄断法豁免。该法案要求球队在新主场开始比赛之前9个月向联盟递交申请,而联盟则应对诸如球迷支持、现有体育场的质量与年龄及是否存在亏损等因素进行调查。最后这一法案要求联盟举行听证会,有关利益各方可以提交证据,听证会之后5天内联盟应做出决定。该法案明确提出,除非未能遵循上述程序,否则任何职业体育联盟做出的拒绝球队迁移的决定都豁免于反垄断诉讼。然而令人遗憾的是,该法案自1998年提交给众议院司法委员会和商业委员会之后就石沉大海。
时至今日,有关给予职业体育联盟在球队迁移问题上以豁免的立法建议仍然没有得到国会的通过。这意味着,职业体育联盟在未来相当长的一段时间内依然要通过不断修订其球队迁移规则来满足《谢尔曼法》的要求,从而避免在法庭上输给那些为一己私利而蠢蠢欲动的球队。
【注释】作者简介:裴洋,北京师范大学法学院讲师,法学博士,主要研究方向为
体育法、国际私法。
See James Quirk,“An Economic Analysis of Team Movements in Professional Sports”, (1973)38 Law and Contemp. Probs. pp.48-52.
在美国,最受欢迎的体育运动是棒球、橄榄球、篮球和冰球,这四项运动如今都有统一的、由多支职业球队组成的全国职业联盟,即棒球大联盟(Major League Baseball,简称MLB),全国橄榄球联盟(National Football League,简称NFL),全国篮球协会(National Basketball Association,简称NBA)和全国冰球联盟(National Hockey League,简称NHL),通常统称为“四大联盟”(Big Four)。
See John Wunderli,“Squeeze Play: The Game of Owners, Cities, Leagues and Congress”,(1994)5 Marq. Sports L. J. p.90.
See JohnWunderli,“Squeeze Play: The Game of Owners, Cities, Leagues and Congress”, (1994)5 Marq. Sports L. J. p.90.
See Arthur T. Johnson,“The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public policy Response”, (1985) Government and Sport p.229.
See John Wunderli, “Squeeze Play: The Game of Owners, Cities, Leagues and Congress”, (1994)5 Marq. Sports L. J. p.90.
迈克尔·利兹和彼得·冯·阿尔门著:《体育经济学》,杨玉明、将建平、王琳予译,清华大学出版社2003年版,第192-193页。
See Gerald W. Scully, The Business of Major League Baseball , University Of Chicago Press , 1989, p.119.
See Charles C. Eucher, Playing the Field(1993).
See Thomas R. Hurst and Jeffrey M. McFarland,“The Effect of Repeal of The Baseball Antitrust Exemption on Franchise Relocations”,(1998)8 Depaul-LCA Art & Ent. Law. p.266.
See Stephen John Kolias,“Offensive Interference: How Communities Have Harnessed Market Forces to Retain NFL Franchise, Eliminating the Need for H.R.3817’s Proposed Antitrust Exemption”,(2001)8 Sports Law. J. pp.43-44.
See Sanjay Jose Mullick,“Browns to Baltimore: Franchise Free Agency and the New Economics of the NFL”,(1996)7 Marq. Sports L. J. p.4.
“联盟思维”一词是NFL历史上的传奇主席罗泽尔(Rozelle)发明的,他用该词来描述其所持的保持联盟的长期稳定性的理念。See Sanjay Jose Mullick,“Browns to Baltimore: Franchise Free Agency and the New Economics of the NFL”,(1996)7 Marq. Sports L. J. p.1.
迈克尔·利兹和彼得·冯·阿尔门著:《体育经济学》,杨玉明、将建平、王琳予译,清华大学出版社2003年版,第79页。经济学家把这类行为称作公地悲剧(the tragedy of the commons)。“公地悲剧”得名于很久以前,指城市在农场主都把他们的牲畜放牧到城镇公地上时所面临的问题。由于没有一个财产所有者对城镇公地拥有权利,或对城镇公地负责,于是,没有一个人具有限制公地放牧数量的动力。结果,公地因放牧过度,最终变得毫无价值。同书,第79页。
反垄断法的立法目的的背后隐藏着深刻的法理和经济理论,因此是非常复杂的。从美国反垄断法的理论和实践上看,曾提出过的有关
反垄断法的立法目的也是形形色色,比如促进开放市场的竞争、提高消费者福利、提高经济效率、分散权力等等。一般来说,美国反垄断法立法目的的对立论点可以清楚地划分为两种:一种是所谓芝加哥学派的主张,即
反垄断法的制度设计仅仅是通过在美国产业中分配效率的最大化使消费者福利最大化;另一种主张来自“杰弗逊主义者”(Jeffersonian),他们认为
反垄断法的制度设计是达到或者保护一组社会和政治的价值,尤其是包括避免在少数人手中的经济权力的巨大化和集中。孔祥俊著:《
反垄断法原理》,中国法制出版社,2001年版,第187页。近年来,美国联邦最高法院已逐渐倾向于接受新古典经济学的主张,将促进“消费者福利”看作
反垄断法的主要立法目的。SeeFrank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules”,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.440.
孔祥俊著:《
反垄断法原理》,中国法制出版社,2001 年版,第382页以下。
沈敏荣著:《法律的不确定性——反垄断法规则分析》,法律出版社2001年版,第82页。
San Francisco Seals, Ltd v. NHL, 379 F.Supp. 966(C.D.Cal. 1974).
San Francisco Seals, Ltd v. NHL, 379 F.Supp. 969-970(C.D.Cal. 1974).
San Francisco Seals, Ltd v. NHL, 379 F.Supp. 969-970(C.D.Cal. 1974).
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National Football League, 726 F. 2d 1381(9th Cir.), cert. denied, 469 U.S.990(1984).
NFL Constitution and Bylaws, Rule 4.1 and 4.3.该规则后来将“所有球队业主同意”改为“四分之三多数业主同意”。
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National FootballLeague, 726 F. 2d 1394.
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National FootballLeague, 726 F. 2d 1394.
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National Football League, 726 F. 2d 1395.
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National Football League, 726 F. 2d 1395.
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National Football League, 791 F. 2d 1381, 1401(9th Cir. 1984) cert. denied, 469 U.S.990(1984).
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v National Football League, 791 F. 2d 1369(9th Cir.1984) cert. denied, 469 U.S.990(1984).
Nationaln Basketball Ass’n v. SDC Basketball Club, 815 F. 2d 567(9th Cir. 1987), cert. dismissed, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Comm’n v. Nat’l Basketball Ass’n, 484 U.S.960(1987).
National Basketball Ass’n v. SDC Basketball Club, 815 F. 2d 567(9th Cir. 1987), cert. dismissed, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Comm’n v. Nat’l Basketball Ass’n, 484 U.S.960(1987).
National Basketball Ass’n v. SDC Basketball Club, 815 F. 2d 567(9th Cir. 1987), cert. dismissed, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Comm’n v. Nat’l Basketball Ass’n, 484 U.S.960(1987).
NFL的总裁保罗·塔格利亚布(Paul Tagliabue)曾说NFL“有权就他们认为所必须的任何费用进行评估”,如果公羊队同意支付更高的迁移费用的,其迁移计划就将得到批准。St Louis Convention &Visitors Comm’n, 154 F. 3d 855.
St Louis Convention &Visitors Comm’n, 154 F. 3d 851(8th Cir. 1998).
St.Louis Convention and Visitors Commission v. NFL et al 154 F. 3d 851(Fed. Cir. 1998).
St.Louis Convention and Visitors Commission v. NFL et al 154 F. 3d 852, 856(Fed. Cir. 1998).
See Angela Scafuri,“National Football Leagure Relocation Policies Do Not Creat an Anticompetitive Enviroment-St.Louis Convention &Visitors Commission v. National Football League, 154 F. 3d 851(8th Cir. 1998)”,(1999)9 Seton Hall Journal of Sport Law p.596.
Piazza v. MLB, 831 F.Supp. 420, 422(D.D.Pa. 1993).
Butterworth v. National League of Professional Baseball Clubs, 644 So. 2d 1021(1994).
New Orleans Pelicans Baseball Inc v. National Ass’n of Professional Baseball Leagues Inc., 1994 WL 631144(E.D.La. 1994).
National League of Professional Baseball Clubs v. Federal Baseball Club ,Inc., 269 F. 681, 682(D.C.Cir. 1920).
Toolson v. New York Yankees, Inc., 346 U.S.356(1953).
Flood v. Kuhn, 407 U.S.258(1972).
“棒球豁免”(baseball exemption)是指棒球运动在美国享受的不受
反垄断法管辖的特殊待遇,MLB在美国产业界中的独一无二的地位是美国联邦最高法院通过对“联邦棒球案”“图尔森案”和“弗拉德案”的判决得以确立和延续的。然而“棒球豁免”的具体范围一直存在着争议,直到1998年美国国会通过了《柯特·弗拉德法》(Curt Flood Act)才明确了“棒球豁免”的范围,从此MLB至少要在运动员流动制度上接受
反垄断法的审查。有关“棒球豁免”的历史演进, see Roger Abrams,“The Curt Flood Act: Before the Flood: the History of Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption”,9 Marq. Sports L.J.
See Andrew E. Borteck,“The Faux Fix: Why a Repeal of Major League Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption Would Not Solve its Servere Competitive Balance Problems”, (2004)25 Cardozo L. Rev. p.1084.
See Andrew E. Borteck,“The Faux Fix: Why a Repeal of Major League Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption Would Not Solve its Servere Competitive Balance Problems”, (2004)25 Cardozo L. Rev. p.1081.
尽管MLB的球队迁移规则享受“棒球豁免”,但近年来美国学者对于职业棒球队的迁移所引发的
反垄断法问题似乎要比对其他职业体育联盟的类似问题更感兴趣,有关的专门研究成果也更多。See Andrew E.Borteck,“The Faux Fix: Why a Repeal of Major League Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption Would Not Solve its Servere Competitive Balance Problems”, (2004)25 Cardozo L. Rev. pp.1069-1109;Thomas R. Hurst and Jeffrey M. McFarland,“The Effect of Repeal of The Baseball Antitrust Exemption on Franchise Relocations”, (1998)Depaul J. Art&Ent. Law pp.263-302;Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules”,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. pp.409-468.
持这一观点的学者论述可参见以下著述:Goldman,“Sports Antitrust, and the Single Entity Theory”,(1989)63 Tul. L. Rev.;Grauer, “Recognition of the National Football League as a Single Entity Under Section One of the Sherman Act: Implications of the Consumer Welfare Model”,(1983)82 Mich. L. Rev.;Robers,“The Single Entity Status of Sports Leagues Under Section 1 of the Sherman Act: An Alternative View”, (1986)60 Tul. L. Rev. 562;Joshua P. Jones,“A Congressional Swing and Miss: The Curt Flood Act, Player Control, and The National Pastime”,(1999)33 G. A. L. Rev.
See Michael S. Jacobs, “Professional Sports Leagues, Antitrust, and the Single-Entity Theory:A Defense of the Status Quo”,(1991)67 Ind. L. J. p.29.
See Michael S. Jacobs, “Professional Sports Leagues, Antitrust, and the Single-Entity Theory: A Defense of the Status Quo”, (1991)67 Ind. L. J. p.29.
North Am. Soccer League v. N.L.R.B., 613 F. 2d 1379, 1381-84(5th Cir. 1980); San Francisco Seals v. NHL, 379 F.Supp. 966, 967-70(C.D.Cal. 1974).
Los Angeles Mem’l Coliseum Comm’n v. NFL, 726 F. 2d 1381, 1387-90(9th Cir. 1984);North Am. Soccer League v. NFL, 670 F. 2d 1249, 1257-58(2d Cir. 1981).
See Thomas A. Piraino, Jr., “A Proposal for the Antitrust Regulation of Professional Sports”, (1999)79 B. U. L. Rev. p.899.
NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, 468 U.S.85(1984). NCAA的全称是National Collegiate Athletic Association,全国高校体育联合会。NCAA是美国业余体育领域内最有影响的体育行会,几乎所有美国高校的体育活动均受NCAA的管制。郭树理著:《体育纠纷的多元化救济机制探讨——比较法与国际法的视野》,法律出版社,2004年版,第152页。
Brown v. Pro Football, 116 S. Ct. 593(1995).
Brown v. Pro Football, 116 S. Ct. 593(1995).
Brown v. Pro Football, 116 S. Ct. 593(1995).
Thomas A. Piraino,“Beyond Per Se, Rule of Reason or Merger Analysis: A New Antritrust Standard for Joint Ventures”,(1977)76 Minn L. Rev. pp.1,7.
See Joseph P. Bauer,“Antitrust and Sports: Must Competition in the Field Displace Competition in the Marketplace?”,(1993)60 Tenn. L. Rev. p.276.有研究表明,争夺冠军的球队间实力越接近,比赛观众的上座率就越高,see Stephen F. Ross,“Monopoly Sports Leagues”,(1989)73 Minn. L. Rev. p.670.
Smith v. Pro Football, 593 F. 2d 1173, 1179(D.C.Cir. 1978).
以NFL为例,其成员球队有的是公司性质的、有的是合伙性质的、有的是独资的,但在法律上它们都是各自独立的。
Seattle Totems Hockey Club v. NHL, 783 F. 2d 1347, 1350(9th Cir. 1986);Mid-South Grizzlies v. NFL, 720 F. 2d 772, 787(5th Cir. 1983);San Francisco Seals v. NHL, 379 F. Supp. 966, 970(C.D.Cal. 1974)
Robers,“The Single Entity Status of Sports Leagues Under Section 1 of the Sherman Act: An Alternative View”,(1986)60 Tul. L. Rev. p.562.
See Michael S. Jacobs, “Professional Sports Leagues, Antitrust, and the Single-Entity Theory: A Defense of the Status Quo”,(1991)67 Ind. L. J. p.34.
See Leveling the Playing Field: Relevant Product Market Definition in Sports Franchise Relocation Cases, The University of Chicago Legal Forum,2000,pp.257-258.
See Thane N. Rosenbaum,“The Antitrust Implications of Professional Sports League Revisited: Emerging Trends in the Modern Era”,(1989)41 U.Miami L. Rev. p.784.
Fishman,1981-2 Trade Cases(CCH)at 74,741,74,756.
495 US 1074, 1077(1982)(Rehnquist dissenting).
See Thane N. Rosenbaum,“The Antitrust Implications of Professional Sports League Revisited: Emerging Trends in the Modern Era”,(1989)41 U. Miami L. Rev.p.822, n285.
同上。
See Gary R. Roberts,“Sports Leagues and the Sherman Act: The Use and Abuse of Section1 to Regulate Restraints on Intraleague Rivalry”,32 UCLA Law Review p.258, n135.
See Leveling the Playing Field:Relevant Product Market Definition in Sports Franchise Relocation Cases,The University of Chicago Legal Forum,2000,pp.257-258.
Piazza v. MLB, 831 F.Supp. 439(D.D.Pa. 1993)
Piazza v. MLB, 831 F.Supp. 439(D.D.Pa. 1993)
Sullivan v. NFL, 34 F. 3d 1091, 1095(1st Cir. 1994);NASL, 670 F. 2d 1250.
但这并不意味着球迷不会因为球队迁移而受到影响。恰恰相反,球迷的利益正是对球队迁移制度进行合理规则分析时需要重点考查的方面。在此,我们只是认为球迷的因素在市场界定阶段并非决定性的。
有学者甚至认为做此种宽泛的市场界定无异于在事实上给予了职业体育联盟以反垄断法豁免。See Thomas Kennedy, Comment,“Will America’s Pastime Be a Part of America’s Future?: An Anti trust Analysis That Enables Sports Leagues to Compete Effectively in the Entertainment Market”,(1998)46 UCLA L. Rev. p.620.
Coniglio v. Highwood Services,Inc, 495 F. 2d 1286(2d Cir. 1974).
See Katherine C. Leone,“No Team, No Peace: Franchise Free Agency in the National Football League”,(1997)97 Colum L. Rev. p.473, 478-96.
See Leveling the Playing Field:Relevant Product Market Definition in Sports Franchise Relocation Cases, The University of Chicago Legal Forum,2000,p.245.
James Quirk and Rodney D. Fort, Hard Ball 125(Princeton,1999).
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.447.
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.447.
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.448.
Bill Veeck,the Hustler’s Handbook 302(1965).
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.451.
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.449.
See Frank P. Scibilia,“Baseball Franchise Stability and Consumer Welfare: an Argument for Reaffirming Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption with Regard to its Franchise Relocation Rules”,(1996)6 Seton Hall J. Sport L. p.442.
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission v. National Football League, 726 F. 2d 1381(9th Cir.), cert. denied, 469 U.S.990(1984).
Fan Freedom and Community Protection Act of 1995, H.R.2740, 104th Cong. (1995)(enacted).